Social And Cultural Impacts On The Environment Tourism Essay

affable And Cultural Impacts On The surroundings tourerry EssayThe phaetonry Industry is regarded as one of the to the spicyest degree burning(prenominal) and fastest growing persistence around the world. Travel has been of owing(p) interest to people since the beginning of the civilization. Recently, it has been noned that there has been an increase in holidaymakers arrivals, especially in small island states. According to UNWTO, touring carry lead cover to grow in 2011. touring carry sector has suffered from the global financial crisis in 2008 and 2009, only thanks to the improved stinting conditions worldwide, inter interior(a) touristry has been adequate to recover from the bloodline brought in the financial crisis. (United Nations, 2010). The travel and touristry constancy is one of the largest and ab discover dynamic industries in the world and this industry is expect to generate about 9% of global GDP and provide for much than 235 meg jobs represent ing 8 % of global employment (Merco Press, 2010).The WTO has set up the long forecast of the measure outment of the using of touristry up to the first 20 years of the new millennium known as the touristry 2020 vision.UNWTOs Tourism 2020 vision predicts that international arrivals atomic number 18 expected to r for each one over 1.56 one thousand thousand by the year 2020. Of these worldwide arrivals in 2020, 1.2 will be intr argional and 0.4 will be long-haul travelers. The top three receiving regions will be Europe with 717 million tourists, eastern United States Asia and the Pacific around 397 million and the Americas with 282 million, fol outseted by the Africa, Middle East and South Asia (UNWTO, 2011). As much(prenominal), the tourist will continue to be a flourishing industry in the coming years. Tourism has been described as the smokeless(prenominal) industry that understructure bring that potful bring level best benefit to a fraternity as comp ard to opposite frugal activities. Tourism has been viewed as a means of improving a community of interests as a break-dance place to live and generating stinting benefits.2.1 Tourism impacts in that location be umpteen academic researchers that relieve oneself been done on the impacts of touristry. more than local anaesthetic communities believe that touristry can stimulate trade in social, cultural, surroundingsal and economic dimensions where touristry activities convey had a close contact with the local communities (Beeton, 2006Richards Hall, 2000).It is important to agnize and assess tourism impacts so as to maintain sustainability and the long-term success of the tourism industry (Diedrich Garcia-Buades, 2008). Tourism is a equivalent regarded to as the worlds largest industry and regarded as a means of achieving community evolution (Sharpley, 2002). As much(prenominal), it becomes imperative to understand tourism impacts towards the community. Below is a draw illustratin g tourism impacts on the community.Perceived Negative Impacts of TourismPersonal benefit from TourismResident CharacteristicsSupport for Additional TourismCommunity Tourism DependencePerceived Positive Impacts of TourismSupport for Tourism meanSource change from Perdue, Long and Allen 1990, p.589In the twenty-first century, researchers on tourism points out a range of both tyrannical and invalidating impacts on the waiter community as a result of tourism victimization. (Fredline and Faulkner, 2000 Upchurch and Teivane, 2000). some(prenominal) studies lay down been conducted that explain the impacts of tourism on the surroundings, economy, society and culture. Researches done on the impacts of tourism on the society atomic number 18 wide and varied. For example, as Ryan (1991) states that the great impacts of tourism will give-up the g armament when there is a greater cattle ranch in the midst of the culture and income level of both host and tourist.Locals perceptions towards the tourism impacts can vary significantly. According to Sharma (2004), if residents project more controlling attititudes towards tourism impacts, tourism phylogenesis will be more successful in a community. If residents benefit from tourism increment they digest additional tourism mean and discipline in a community. By understanding the residents perceptions, can stand by to access support for continued tourism development done community message building. Gursoy Rutherford (2004) outlines that tourism developers need to consider the perceptions and attitudes of residents before investing in scarce resources. In addition, understanding of residents perceptions towards tourism impacts can too help oneself in make outing the types of tourism which start the potential for building community mental object (Moscardo, 2008, p.86). On the former(a) hand, various studies show that people who have an economic benefit from tourism perceive more positive impact from i t (Chon, 2000). economic impactsIn the beginning, tourism was encouraged because of its economic impacts. It is highly accepted that tourism provides economic benefits to the community. The economic impacts of tourism are the some widely researched impacts of tourism on community (Mason, 2003).Economic impacts are easier to research in a local community because it is small and generally it is more accessible. Moreover, tourism can have positive benefits on local economies and a visible impact on national GDP growth which can be an essential atom for community development and poverty reduction. (Ashe, 2005). For instance, tourism creates employment for locals, investment opportunities, stemma opportunities, tax revenues for government and it in addition help small and medium enterprises for countries, regions and communities to splay (Ryan ,1998 Choi Sirakaya, 2005 Dyer,2007) but on the other hand tourism can have disallow economic impacts on the society such as besides mu ch dependence on foreign capital, inflation , leakages and a low education trap for locals (Giannoni Maupertus, 2007). Yet, more important is the benefits spread to the residents of local communities (Scheyvens, 2001).The economic impacts of tourism are therefore, generally perceived positively by the residents (Tatoglu et al 2000).For the development of tourism to occur, environment, societies and cultures at the finish has paid a dour price. The main concern is not only the development but to rein the challenges represent by the development (Chaudhary, 2007).Social and cultural impactsAccording to faithfulness (1993,pp.135-164), culture and society are in a state of unbroken change because of many factors, notably the rapid progress in communication speculation and social interactions that can extend rapidly over vast distances. Social impacts refer to changes in the lives of people who live in endpoint communities and these impacts are mostly associated with residents a nd tourists. On the hand, cultural impacts refer to changes in the humanistic discipline, artifacts, customs, rituals and architecture of a people and are longer term changes resulting from tourism development than other types of development. Social and cultural impacts refer to changes to residents everyday experiences as well as to their values, way of find and intellectual and artistic products. Social and cultural impacts are strongly inter associate and not limited only to the host region population (Glasson, 1995, p.34).In many destinations, the nature and traditional meanings of culture may be substantially changed when culture is redefined as market share (Earrington and Gewertz, 1996). Because of this, a host community may face cultural problems of the commercialization of culture, religion and the arts together with the misuse of indigeneous culture as charitys and be forced to fasten on cultural habits of the tourists, such as their language, dress and manner to sat isfy visitors (Cohen, 1979).Another downside of tourism development is seen in many parts of the world where tourism developments venture the displacement of local people. On the other hand, Glasson (1995, p.35-36) argues that along with the downside of development, there are cultural benefits and intercultural communication betwixt hosts and visitors that increase good understanding between them. Without tourists, local culture and tradition may have been lost completely, as there is no market for traditional products.Environmental impactsEnvironmental impacts occur as a result of tourism development in many regions of the world as communities struggle to find an optimal balance between optimal and conservation. Recently,it has been found that tourism activities are highly dependent on the environment. Research has shown the impacts that tourism has on internal resources (Green, Hunter and Moore, 2000).Most of the researchers have been conducted on rude(a) or semi- congenital celestial orbits, with very little research done on urban settings (Green, 1990).Specific sites have been examined such as Alpine areas (Goodman, 1987Rodriguez, 1987), islands (Wilkinson, 1989), coastal areas (Martinez-Taberner, Moya and Forteza, 1990). In addition, most research has been focalisee around the controvert impacts that tourism has on inbuilt resources after the damage has taken place.As such, tourism is always unredeemed to be responsible for resource degradation (Farell and McLellan, 1987).On the other hand, there are also positive impacts of tourism associated with the environment.2.2 The Environmental Impacts of TourismThe environment is belike one of the most important contributors to the desirability and drawing card of a destination. scenic sites, amenable modalitys and unique landscape features have an important influence in tourism development and the spatial distribution of tourism movement. (Coccossis and Nijkamp, 1995, p.4)Tourism and the environme nt are interrelated as tourism is dependent on natural resources to survive. There are studies that have identified both the positive and negative environmental impacts of tourism (Burns Holden, 1995 Puckzo Ratz, 2000). Table 1 can better enlarge both the positive and negative impacts of tourism in a destination area.Table 1 Balance sheet of environmental impacts of tourism vault of heaven of effectNegative impactsPositive impactsBiodiversityDisruption of breeding/feeding patterns clean of animals for leisure ( lookup) or to put up souvenir trade. Loss of habitats and change in species composition Destruction of vegetationEncouragement to wield animals as attractions. presidential term of protected or conserved areas to meet tourist demandsErosion and animal(prenominal) damageS crude oil erosionDamage to sites through trampling Overloading of cardinal infrastructure (e.g. water supply supply ne cardinalrks)Tourism revenue to finance fundament rep variant and site restorati onImprovement to infrastructure prompted by tourist demandPollutionWater taint through sewage or fuel spillage and rubbish from pleasure boats Air pollution (e.g. vehicle emissions) Noise pollution (e.g. from vehicles or tourist attractions bars, discos, etc.) LitteringCleaning programmes to protect the attractiveness of location to touristsResource baseDepletion of ground and surface water digression of water supply to meet tourist needs (e.g. golf courses or pools) Depletion of local fuel sources Depletion of local building-material sourcesDevelopment of new/improved sources of supplyVisual/structural changeLand transfers to tourism (e.g. from farming)Detrimental optic impact on natural and non-natural landscapes through tourism development base of new architectural stylesChanges in (urban) functions Physical expansion of built-up areasRegeneration and/or modernisation of built environmentReuse of dis apply buildingsSource Adapted from Hunter and Green (1990)For the negative im pacts of tourism, Puckzo and Ratz (2000) observed that tourism development that are not well-planned often leads to increased stress on destinations and in negative changes in the destinations physical and socio cultural attributes. According to Wood (1991), it is possible to identify broad categories of impacts that may regard all destinations. Water pollution is believed to be one of the environmental impacts caused by tourism. It can affect surfaces such as rivers, lakes and oceans. Chemical and oils spills from boats can cause devastating water pollution that kills water birds, shellfish and other wildlife. tourists can also contribute to the degradation of the leatherneck life also throughsnorkelling,scuba diving and sport fishing can threaten fisheries and other naval resources. For example, tourism is known to have contributed to wrong development around Lake Tahoe in the United States (Iverson, Sheppard Strain, 1993) and at Pattaya in Thailand (Mieczkowski, 1995) oil p ollution in water at King George island (Harris, 1991) habitat disadvantage, atomization and erosion in Nepal (Croall, 1995) decease of wildlife at Zakynthos in Greece (Prunier, Sweeney Gree, 1993) disturbance of animals and loss of area for production in Kenya (Sindiga Kannunah, 1999).Apart from the consumption of large amounts of natural resources, the tourism industry also produces considerable waste and pollution. In fact, tendency of liquid and solid waste generated by the tourism industry has posed a problem for many maturation countries and some countries are unequal to(p) of treating these waste materials. This has led to reducing the availability of natural resources such as fresh water. For example, in Kerala state the tourist industry collapses after two decades of fast growth because there was inadequate disposal of solid waste. holidaymakers also contribute to land pollution from solid waste and the contamination of marine waters and coastal areas from pollution generated by marinas, hotels and cruise ships. Moreover, the tourist industry uses high level of energy consumption in hotels including air-conditioning, heating and cooking as well as transportation which can cause air pollution in many host countries. Air and noise pollution as well congestions are apt(predicate) to result from tourist development.Tourism activities which are not correctly controlled can also cause utter(a) disruption of wildlife habitats and increased pressure on endangered species. For example, in Africas national set tourists vehicles approach wild animals and very often distract them from hunting and breeding, in the carribean sea there are even boat crews that comply whales and dolphins and as such discourage petting which tends to disturb the animals feeding and deportment (Masny,2001).In addition, tourism also leads to the clearance of native vegetation for the development of new facilities, new infrastructure and tourist development. There is an inc rease in demand for fuelwood and even forest fires. This results not only in the destruction of local habitats and ecosystems but also in the processes of erosion and landslide. Fragile areas such as forests, wet lands and mangroves are also threatened by tourism activities.On the other side, tourism contributes to the positive benefits of the environment. Doswell (1997) argues that tourism lays emphasis to conserve and protect the environment. Tourism also draws attention to subjects regarding biodiversity, endangered species and human impacts on the environment. Tourism is also used as a means to act up natural areas preferably than to develop them for alternative uses such as agriculture, forestry and archeological site (Master, 1998). Tourism can contribute to the conservation of in the buff areas and habitat. For example, in gold coast tourism has helped in maintaining the natural reserves. holidaymakers can help towards environmental protection, conservation and biologica l diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. In this way, natural areas become valuable and this can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife parks.Revenue received from park-entrance fees can be allocated to pay for the protection and management of sensitive areas. On the hand, in some places government collect money from tourists in indirect ways. For example user tax, sales or recreation of term of a contract equipment and license fees for hunting and fishing can provide government with the proper fund needed to manage natural resources and to finance infrastructure. Tourism encourages cleaning programmes , and this reduces the damagingAnother change that can affect tourism is climate change. Climate impact is considered as the consequences of climate change on natural and human systems (IPCC, 2001). Climate impacts can be for example the primary productivity of an ecosystem, snow cover depth. For example, a Bigano (2006) stimulates the effects of development and climate change on tourism. Climate change could negatively affect countries and regions that depend to a great extent on tourism.2.3 Residents perceptions towards tourismFor the long-term success of the tourism industry, it is imperative to understand and assess residents attitudes towards the impact of tourism development (Ap,1992 Ritchie and Inkari, 2006). Sustainable tourism development can be achieved normally when all stakeholders are involved in the process (Bryd, 2007). Sustainable tourism believes that the community is the focal point of tourism and think process (Choi and Sirakaya, 2005).In addition, investigation the residents perceptions towards tourism is important because it influence their demeanor towards tourism (Andriotis and Vaughan, 2003). Studies show that the perceptions of residents towards tourism differ toward tourism development. Sustainable tourism development largely depends on the hosts acceptability of tourists and tourism-related programs, offerings and activities by locals (Musa, Hall, and broad(prenominal)am 2004). The active support of the local population is required for tourism development to occur in a community. One indicator that affects tourism development in a destination is the host attitude (Lepp, 2007). In a destination area, the attitudes of the tourists and residents are taken into account. Another factor that is likely to influence the negative and positive impacts of tourists destination is residents attachment to community. Some researchers, Canan and Hennessy (1989) states that the longer the residents live in a community, the more negative they are towards tourism development. The lengths of residency of locals have a direct impact on tourism development.There are several(prenominal)(prenominal) studies that have been conducted to explain the residents perceptions towards tourism impacts and how far residents support tourism development in a community. Theories such as the attribution theory (Pearce, 1989) dependency theory (Preister, 2008), the social representation theory (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003), butlers (1980) tourist area life speech rhythm, Doxeys Irridex model, the intrinsic and foreign framework (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997) and the social flip-flop theory ( striation) (Ap, 1982) have been developed in an attempt to better understand the host perceptions towards tourism.However, it is the SET that have received the greatest attention by scholars attempting to study residents attitudes towards tourism and their support towards tourism development. (Gursoy Rutherford, 2004 Sirakaya, Teye , Sonmez, 2002). However there are also other popular theories such as pantrymans celestial orbit flavor Cycle (1980, Doxeys choler Index, the extrinsic/intrinsic model (Faulkner and Tideswell 1997) which describe the host-tourist relation.2.3.1Social Exchange TheoryIn a tourism context, social exchange theory would mean an exchange of resources between the tourists and the host populat ion where each of the supply each other with valued resources (Ap, 1992, p.668). SET implies that residents who gain benefits from the tourism industry are likely to perceive the industry as positive and thus support tourist industry, date those who perceive themselves incurring costs because of tourism would display negative attitudes towards tourism thereby opposing such development. The SET theory is the most common type of theory used to assess tourism impacts in a particular destination. Social exchange theory firmly believes that a need exists to measure the level of active participation of residents in the planning and development process associated with tourism development (Wang Pister, 2008). In the tourism literature, several studies have been conducted and which explained the theory of residents perceptions and assessments of the costs and benefits of tourism and their support for tourism development. In guilelessr words, social exchange theory supports that residents calculate the costs and benefits of tourism development, and their thrust for tourism development (Ap, 1992 Yoon 2001). As such residents become aware of the positive and negative impacts of tourism and can decide whether to support or not to support tourism development.Figure1 Factors affecting residents attitudes towards touristsEXTRINSIC balanceINTRINSIC DIMENSIONPeriod of ResidenceMature State of DevelopmentEarly degree ofDevelopmentLongTermRecentArrivalHigh TouristRatioAdaptedNon-adaptedddEmploymentLifestyle ChoiceLow TouristRatioPerception ofTourism+InternationalTourismOrientation domesticTourismOrientationNoYesNon-TourismZoneTourismZoneHighSeasonalityLowSeasonalityResidentialProximityInvolvementSource Faulkner and Tideswell (1997)2.3.2 Intrinsic and unessential ModelNumerous studies have identified the factors that affect residents perceptions .Such factors have been used in the tourism literature to describe tourism impacts (Jurowski Gursoy, 2004). These are intrinsic a nd extrinsic variables (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, Fredline Faulkner, 2000, p.765). The intrinsic variables refer to the characteristics of the host community that affect the impacts of tourism with the host community (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, p.6) and includes factors such asemployment, length of residence, proximity to tourist zones and link within the tourism industry. Length of residency affect tourism development in a community, native born of the community have been found to have more negative perception of tourism development because they are attached to that place (Madrigal, 1995). On the other hand, Bisle and Hoy (1980) found a positive relationship between distance of residence from the tourist zone and perceptions. As regards to community attachment, studies showed that the longer a host has been a resident in the area as such they become less attached to tourism (Weaver, 2001). Residents who are dependent and involved in the tourism sector are more likely to have pos itive attitudes towards tourism (Linderb, 1997). The intrinsic variable shows that the host community is not homogeneous but rather heterogeneous meaning that the perceptions of tourism differ among the residents (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003 Faulkner Tideswell, 1997 Fredline Faulkner, 2000).The extrinsic factors are the characteristics of a location with respect to its role as a tourist destination including the nature and stage of tourist activity and the types of tourists involved (Faulkner Tideswell, 1997, p.6).The extrinsic factors that are likely to influence host attitudes towards tourism is the stage of tourism development occurring in a destination (Andriotis Vaughan, 2003) as argued by butler (1980) and Doxey (1975). The extrinsic factors areseasonality, type of tourists, particular stage of development, the tourist guest-ratio (Doxey, 1973 butler, 1980 Ap, 1983).Seasonality affect a destination, during peak seasons there is high flow of tourists resulting in economic infl ation, traffic congestion and this affect the residents way of lives on the other hand, residents who are dependent on tourism are likely to tolerate these lush conditions. (Rothman, 1978 Beliste, 1980 Sheldon, 1984).The type of tourists is another factor that affects residents perceptions of tourism. Some tourists are independent travellers while others depend on locals, they try adjust with locals they accept the hosts local conditions (Amir, 1985 rogue 2003). In understanding residents perceptions towards tourism, the stage of development is considered among the most important factors. To better illustrate this issue, it was important to investigate Butlers Tourism Destination Life rhythm method of birth control Model.2.3.3 Butlers Area Life CycleAnother model in regard to the host-tourist destination is Butlers Area Lifecycle Model. Although that this model dates three decades, it is still academically recognized. Butler (1980) believes that tourist areas uprise and change ov er time. According to this evolution, the stages that tourist areas experience are exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation, decline or rejuvenation. Using a life-cycle model, Butler describes the resident and tourist involvement in destination area. Unlike products, destinations have a lifecycle too. Figure 2 illustrates the lifecycle of a destination.Figure 2 Hypothetical Evolution of a Tourist Area (Adapted from Miller and Gallucci, 2004)Using a life-cycle model, Butler describes the resident and tourist involvement in destination area. Unlike products, destinations have a lifecycle too. Moreover, Butler has also explained why tourism leads to unsustainability. By using the example of the life-cycle model, he describes how a small group of tourists explore a natural attraction by involving local residents and making subsequent development of the area. With time, the number of tourists grows, lastly leading to mass tourism. And if the tourism products are n ot rejuvenated, stagnation occurs at the destination and there is a fall through over-consumption of tourism products which is beyond the carrying capacity of the destination. (including adverse effects on the environment)Butler also focuses that if there is no proper management and control, environment degradation is inevitable once carrying capacity has been reached and then exceeded making mass tourism unsustainable. As noted by Jamison (1999), at the stagnation stage, locals have begun to express some discontent with tourism and its effects. When a destination develops, unmet residents expectations and other negative impacts of development are also likely to result in changes and attitudes towards the industry. (Teye, Sonmez and Sirakaya , 2002). The TALC S-shaped curve has also been used to describe the host-guest dichotomy- from the excitement of the potential of tourism through to resentment of tourists, resulting from surpass local social carrying capacity. However, certain limitations have been found in Butlers model. It has been pointed out that the model assumes a degree of homogeneity of community reactions (Mason and Cheyne, 2000), but Butler denies by saying a consistent evolution of tourist area can be conceptualized.Tosun (2002) suggests that this model applies to special(prenominal) areas and not all areasbecause the cycle varies from one tourist area to another.2.3.4 Doxeys Irritation IndexAssociated with Butlers life cycle theory is Doxeys Irritation Index or Irridex which describes the resident-tourist interaction and attitude. This model explains host community reaction to tourism development in a specific area. The model outlines that negative impacts of tourism development might make residents feel irritated as with time host and tourists become incompatible with each other. The model has four stages which vary from euphoria, apathy, annoyance and to antagonism. Although Doxeys (1975) irridex is regarded as one of the most influential theory has been starting from Euphoria to Antagonism, where the resident irritation increases through the stages 1 to 4. (1=low irritation,4=high level of irritation). One limitation of this theory and that of Butler also, is the assumption a community is heterogeneous. The study implies that is the whole community that becomes hostile to tourism, but very often different sections of the community have different reactions. It can be concluded that the Doxey Irritation Index is simple but it does indicate a factor in tourism development and by these social changes some residents will develop antagonistic attitudes towards tourism.2.4 Residents perceptions towards tourism environmental impactsThe environment is one of the main area in which residents assess the potential impacts of tourism before they decide to embrace or withstand it. According to Kuvan and Akan (2005, p.703) residents are more sensitive and concerned for problems related to the environment than the other negative i mpacts of tourism. Following this, Liu, Sheldon, and Var (1987) reported that residents have high ratings for environmental impacts. According to Mieczkowski (1995, p.8) defines the natural environment as a cabal of non-living things, that is, abiotic, physical components together with biological resources or the biosphere including flora and fauna. Kuvan and Akan (2005) describes scholars interests in investigating into community attitudes towards tourism impact on the natural environment at a time when ecological problems such as pollution, depletion of natural resources and disforestation are increasing. This means that mountaineous areas, savannahs, wetlands, deserts, islands and the artic have biophysical characteristics that cause damage to the natural environment. These touchy areas when disturbed, normally have relatively slow rates of recovery (Harrison Price, 1996).The focus on environmental impacts emerged from residents perceived impacts of the environmental impacts and other tourism impacts such as economic and social impacts of tourism has lagged behind. (Kuvan Akan, 2005).Moreover, there is a wishing of information on residents perceived environmental impacts of tourism in developing countries (Kuvan Akan , 2005 Madrgal, 1993). It is an agreed fact that tourism is believed to have a far more visible effect in rural areas and developing contries than urban areas and perchance tourism has a greater effect on rural residents (Madrigal, 1993, p.337), studies related to residents perceptions of the environment has focused more on destinations, communities and regions in developed countries rather than on developing countries. Apart from this, Schluter and Var (1988) observed that there are some issues that are special to developing countries. Furthermore, a proper analysis of the residents perceived environmental impacts of tourism could help planners and tourism practitioners to identify existing concerns and also to develop appropriate po licies and actions.2.5 Tourism development in MauritiusMauritius was make first, and then heaven was copied from it (Mark Twain). Mauritius is among the top 20 beautiful islands of the world .Tourism is an important contributor to economic growth in Small Island developing States like Mauritius. The World Bank has mentioned Mauritius as an example for southern Africa of an economy that has succeed remarkable success in its economic development (World Bank, 1992 Hwedi, 2001). This success as mentioned cannot be escaped from tourism development, given Mauritius as the choice of destination for European visitors (Prayag, 2009 Prayag Ryan, 2010).Mauritiuss tourism industry success can be measurable by the fact that it makes the highest gross domestic product contribution (30 per cent) and receives the cooperate highest yearly total budget allocation(16.1 per cent) of countries in